Parent Support for Children with Challenges - Definitions

A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W XYZ

gag reflex: A tactile (touch) stimulus to the posterior (back) tongue or pharynx (throat) that produces the response of tongue protrusion, head and jaw protrusion, and pharyngeal contractions; the reflex is present by 6½ months of gestation, is strong at birth, is hyperactive in neurologically impaired children, and is hypoactive with ataxia (unsteady gait). The persistence of this reflex is a component of the neurological examination of cranial nerves IX and X.
gait: Walk; pattern of walking; test of walking. An ataxic, or cerebellar, gait is staggering and drunken; in a hemiplegic gait, the affected foot is circumducted (swung forward in a half-circle); an equinus gait is toe walking. Gait tests include walking, running, skipping, hopping (on one foot), heel walking, toe walking, tandem (heel to toe) walking, and Fog tests. Disturbances in gait can reflect major motor system involvement (e.g., cerebral palsy), or milder motor system involvement, such as clumsy child syndrome.
gait analysis: A quantitative description of gait (walk) as performed in a gait analysis laboratory that uses an optical, or visual, recording system and an electric system comprising a floor plate (floor pressure sensor) and a variety of electromyogram (EMG) components; the large amount of data generated is analyzed by specially designed computer programs.
gait cycle: The interval between foot contacts of the same leg while walking; the gait cycle is divided into swing and stance phases. One complete gait cycle covers one stride length (two steps).
GAL: See guardian ad litem.
galactosemia: Hereditary galactose intolerance. An autosomal recessive inborn error of metabolism characterized by hepatomegaly (liver enlargement), splenomegaly (large spleen), and failure to thrive. Infants are normal at birth but soon develop vomiting and lethargy. Some have prolonged prevalence in the neonatal period. Untreated, these children develop cataracts in addition to poor physical growth and mental retardation. One type of galactosemia is not diagnosed until 2-3 years of age with the presentation of mental retardation and IQ scores typically ranging from 50 to 70. Etiology involves a defect in the activity of the enzyme galactose-1-phosphate uridyl transferase. Diagnosis is suspected with an increased amount of reducing substances and galactose in the urine and is confirmed by measuring the enzyme's activity level in red blood cells. Many states include galactosemia in routine newborn screening. Treatment requires dietary manipulation to avoid galactose. In general, the earlier treatment is initiated, the better the cognitive outcome. However, electroencephalogram (EEG) abnormalities and visual-perceptual limitations have been identified in at least half of children treated from birth.
Galant reflex: A primitive reflex observed in infants, elicited by holding the baby in prone (front) suspension and stroking the back paravertebrally (to one side of the spine) from top to bottom. The response to this stimulus is an arching or incurving of the trunk toward the stimulated side. An asymmetrical or extremely strong Galant reflex is thought to increase the risk for hip dislocation in children with cerebral palsy. It is named after the researcher S. Galant who authored the most extensive early description of the reflex.
Galcazzi sign: One knee lower than the other when the child is supine on a Hat surface and the knees are flexed to 90 degrees; this sign occurs with hip dislocation.
Gallaudet University: The only liberal arts college for people with hearing impairment in the world. Founded as a department of the Columbia Institute for the Deaf in 1864 by Amos Kendall (1789-1869) and Edward Miner Gallaudet (1837-1917), the college was established through federal legislation signed by Abraham Lincoln. In 1894, the department became Gallaudet College, named in honor of Edward Gallaudet's father, Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet, who had established the first school for the deaf in the United States. Located in Washington, D.C., Gallaudet University has a distinguished record of success and has produced many leaders in the education of people with hearing impairment in the United States.
galvanic skin response (GSR): The measured resistance to the passage of a weak electric current; an electrophysiological variable used in the research quantification of responsiveness to different stimuli.
Gamper reflex: Bowing reflex; the infant is placed in a supine (back) position and the thighs are extended at the hips, causing the baby to come to a sitting "bow" position. This reflex is rare in premature infants, but common in babies with anencephaly (no brain or absent top of skull).
gangliosidoses: A group of hereditary disorders characterized by progressive storage of gangliosides (chemicals) in the gray matter of the brain. The buildup of the product occurs because of an enzyme that is present only in an inactive form. At least 10 of these disorders have been described, and they present clinically with intellectual deterioration that may be associated with an enlarged liver. Motor findings include dystonia (impaired muscle tone), hypotonia (decreased muscle tone), ataxia (unsteady gait), or myoclonus (muscle twitching). Seizures and optic atrophy (wasting) are frequent. A common physical finding is a cherry red spot in the back of the eye. The rapidity of deterioration and presence of motor and visual problems are specific to the type of enzyme deficiency. Gangliosidoses include Tay-Sachs disease, Niemann-Pick disease, and types of amaurotic (loss of vision unrelated to an eye condition) idiocy, lipofuscinoses, lipidoses, and Gaucher disease. Inheritance is generally autosomal recessive.
Gardner Social Maturity Scale (GSMS): A brief, 15-minute estimate of how a child compares socially with chronological age peers 3-13 years old.
gastrocnemius: Calf muscle.
gastroesophageal reflux (GER): The re-gurgitation of stomach contents back into the esophagus (throat). This can be an occasional typical variant of little significance, or it can be a chronically recurring problem that contributes to aspiration and failure to thrive (poor growth). GER may be associated with significant neurological impairment or a genetic syndrome, and may require surgical correction (a Nissen fundoplication).
gastrostomy: A surgical operation that creates an artificial opening into the stomach, usually for the insertion of a feeding tube.
gate: A test item that assesses nonverbal problem-solving ability; it involves the imitation of a five-block construction. Fine-motor problems limit the interpretation of this item as a measure of intelligence. It can usually be achieved by children 4 years of age.
gate control: A theory of pain that postulates that neural mechanisms in the spinal cord act like a gate to modulate the flow of nerve impulses from the peripheral (noncentral) fibers to the brain. Such gate mechanisms arc influenced by descending nerve impulses that refer to past experience, so that the same degree of pain stimulus may be interpreted quite differently.
Gaucher disease: A progressive condition in which cerebrosides are stored in the reticuloendothelial system (bone marrow, spleen, etc.) and sometimes in the nervous system. There are three clinical types: chronic, infantile, and juvenile. Chronic Gaucher disease is slowly progressive with organ involvement (liver and spleen), hut no neurological involvement occurring until late in life. Infantile Gaucher disease has marked central nervous system involvement and a rapidly progressive downhill course leading to early death. The clinical features of juvenile Gaucher disease are splenomegaly (large spleen), anemia, and neurological involvement (with ataxia [unsteady gait], intellectual deterioration, myoclonic seizures, and spasticity) presenting in the first decade of life. The enzyme acid phosphatase is elevated in the blood. Diagnosis is made by identifying Gaucher cells in bone marrow tissue. Attempts at treatment for the chronic form have included enzyme replacement therapy (Alglucerase/Ceredase) and bone marrow transplant. Inheritance is autosomal recessive, with a recurrence risk of 25%. Two thirds of people with chronic Gaucher disease are of Ashkenazic Jewish ancestry. Named for the French dermatologist Phillipe C.E. Gaucher (1854-1918).
gavage: Feeding by a tube inserted into the stomach; the tube may he a nasogastric, orogastric, or gastrostomy tube. When for a variety of reasons (usually related to the presence of neurological impairment that affects the individual's ability to swallow) tube feeding is used, the orogastric and nasogastric tubes usually represent short-term approaches and the gastrostomy tube a long-term approach.
GBS infection: See group B streptococcal infection.
GED: See Tests of General Educational Development.
gelastic seizure: An unusual seizure type with paroxysmal laughter and transient loss of consciousness.
gene: A unit of heredity located on a specific chromosome site (locus) and comprising the cell's DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid).
generalization: The ability to apply a rule to cases or situations other than those in which it has been learned. This process does not always occur automatically in students with disabilities. For example, a student may learn to raise his or her hand consistently in a resource room, but will not do so in a general classroom. Generalization is more likely to occur if it is a component of the training process itself.
generalized seizure: Grand mal seizure; tonic-clonic seizure; a seizure with electrical changes in both sides of the brain (both hemispheres). Generalized seizures are characterized by loss of consciousness with tonic (increased muscle tone) and then clonic (rhythmic contraction and relaxation) movements. Seizure types in this category include absence, tonic, clonic, tonic-clonic, atonic, and mvoclonic. The duration can range from a few seconds to half an hour or more. A postictal period of disorientation and poor coordination is common. Generalized seizures can be the primary seizure or may follow a partial seizure. In the latter case, an aura, or warning, may precede the seizure. Generalized tonic-clonic, or major motor, seizures can occur with fever (febrile seizure), prior to menstrual periods, with infections such as meningitis (inflammation of the spinal cord and brain membranes), or with certain drugs. Diagnosis is by electroencephalogram (EEG) with clinical correlation, and treatment includes use of appropriate anticonvulsants.
generic: The name of a chemical structure (e.g., drug) not protected by patent; the official name, or the nonproprietary name. Thus, a generic drug name is the chemical name, whereas the brand name is the proprietary name.
genetic: The etiology (cause) of a disorder determined to be in the structure of an individual's genes, which exhibit extra, missing, or rearranged DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). Genetics is that branch of medicine concerned with the heredity of disease conditions, the prediction of recurrence risks, and the counseling of families about such risks.
genetic counseling: A process to help individuals and families understand the ramifications associated with the present occurrence of a genetic disorder in the family and the risk of recurrence of the disorder. More specifically, genetic counseling involves an attempt by one or more trained people to help at-risk or affected individuals and families to 1) comprehend the medical facts including the diagnosis of a disorder, its probable course, and the available management; 2) appreciate the way heredity contributes to the disorder and the risk of recurrence in specific relatives; 3) understand the options for dealing with the risk of recurrence; 4) choose the course of action that seems appropriate in view of the family's risk and goals, and act in accordance with that decision; and 5) make the best possible adjustment to the disorder in an affected family member and/or to the risk of recurrence of that disorder. Genetic counselors must meet both educational and competency criteria as determined by passing an examination. In 1992, the new American Board of Genetic Counselors became an independent body after separating from the American Board of Medical Genetics medical subspecialty board.
genetic screening: Testing in a particular population to identify individuals at high risk for carrying or having a specific disorder. For example, testing for carriers of Tay-Sachs among the Ashkenazic Jewish population targets a particular subgroup, whereas the blood test for phenylketonuria (PKU) is used in the general population. Other genetic screening tests include chromosome mapping for single gene disorders such as cystic fibrosis or Duchenne muscular dystrophy.
genogram: A diagram delineating family composition and structure for three or more generations. It is used in family systems theory to indicate the types of relationships among individuals as well as genetic diseases and behavioral habits such as alcoholism. Biological, legal, and functional family members and the nature of their relationships are graphically depicted together with pertinent dates, issues, and information in a one-page format. Once structure is mapped, probing for disorders in each of these family members can be helpful in determining familiarity and possible generic inheritance patterns of a particular disorder. The genogram can serve to summarize large amounts of dynamic and factual information concerning biological and psychological risks, illness and dysfunction, as well as to indicate areas of strength and resources.
genomic imprinting: See imprinting, genomic.
genotype: The genes that are present on an individual's chromosomes, the expression of which produces the phenotype (appearance). A carrier genotype for an autosomal recessive disorder would have one disease gene and one normal gene. The expression of that, the phenotype, is usually a typical individual.
genu: Knee.
genu recurvatum: Back-knee; the ability of the knee to bend backward. Secondary to general joint laxity, this may be a component of a more generalized genetic disorder.
genu valgum: Knock-knee; the distance between the knees is decreased whereas that between the ankles is increased. Many children have knock-knees when they start school; this corrects spontaneously by 9 years of age.
genu varum: Bow legs; the distance between the knees is increased. Children are usually bowlegged when they first walk; knock-knee develops late in the preschool period.
geographic tongue: Varying areas of smoothness and roughness on the tongue's surface, giving the impression of a map with contours suggesting land—sea boundaries. Although geographic tongue does occur as a minor dysmorphic (atypical) feature, it is most often a typical variant. Within a fairly short time period, the map's appearance can alter strikingly.
GER: See gastroesophageal reflux.
German measles: See rubella.
Gerstmann syndrome: A neurological syndrome resulting from damage to the dominant parietal lobe and leading to the following signs: finger agnosia (inability to name the finger touched with eyes closed), dysgraphia (impaired writing), dyscalculia (impaired mathematics), and right-left and other spatial disorientation. The same constellation occurring in children without obvious brain injury is referred to as developmental Gerstmann syndrome; it accounts for a very small percentage of learning disability patterns in children.
Gesell, Arnold Lucius (1880-1961): A pediatrician and psychologist whose careful observational studies of infant and child development provided the basis for the maturational theory of development. Gesell originated the description of infant milestones along four major streams, and his infant testing procedures provided the basis for almost all later infant tests. See Also maturational theory of development; infant milestones.
Gesell Developmental Schedules: A standardized procedure to assess development in the areas of motor (gross and fine), adaptive (problem solving), language (expressive and receptive), and personal-social (self-help) functioning for children 4 weeks to 6 years of age. The independent assessment of these four areas allows the interpretation of dissociation between streams as well as global delay. Almost all existing infant (screening and diagnostic) tests have been adapted from the Gesell schedules.
gestalt: A typical perceptual experience in which the whole is understood as something more than the sum of the parts. Furthermore, this gestalt may be perceived before the parts comprising it. Gestalt psychology formulated several laws of perceptual organization: first, the law of proximity, whereby visual elements tend to be grouped together if they are close to each other; second, the law of similarity, whereby elements will be grouped perceptually if they are similar to each other; third, the law of good continuation. whereby elements requiring the fewest changes, or interruptions—in straight or smooth, curving lines, or contours—will be grouped together; fourth, the law of closure, whereby missing parts of a figure are filled in to complete the figure; and fifth, the law of Pragnanz, whereby psychological organization will always be as "good" as prevailing conditions allow, where "good" describes a figure that is highly predictable from the parts that can be seen. When figures become complex or when labeling of incomplete visual or auditory stimuli is required, a similar configuration may be interpreted differently by different individuals based on past experience. The concept of closure is utilized by the Gestalt Closure subtest of the Kaufmann Assessment Battery for Children (K-ABC) and the Incomplete Words and Visual Closure subtests of the Woodcock-Johnson Psycho-Educational Battery-Revised (WJ-R). In each of these tests, the experiential factor is taken into consideration by allowing credit for diverse answers. In education, the term gestalt may be used to describe recognition of a word as a whole without analyzing it phonetically. Gestalt may also refer to grasping an overall concept without understanding the details relating to that concept. This pattern is frequently seen in children with learning, disabilities who have sequential processing limitations.
gestation: Pregnancy; in humans the 40-week period (plus or minus 2 weeks) from conception to birth. A gestation period shorter than 38 weeks indicates prematurity, whereas one longer than 42 weeks indicates postmaturity.
gesture: Movement of any part of the body to emphasize or express an idea, emotion, or function. The term does not include formalized symbolic methods of communication, such as fingerspelling, American Sign Language (ASL), or other forms of unaided augmentative communication. Gestures are an informal method of communication; their meanings are often concrete and facilitate learning, comprehension, and retention. Natural gestures can frequently be used and understood with minimal training. Gestures and facial expressions typically require less motor control than formal sign language systems. Though relatively easy to learn and use, information communicated solely through gestures is typically limited and constrained. Most often, gestures and facial expressions supplement other augmentative communication systems or are employed as a temporary method of communication. Amer-Ind is a comprehensive gestural system based on American Indian hand talk used for fundamental intertribal communication.
G factor: Index of general mental ability or intelligence that largely represents the reasoning and abstracting aspects of mental ability, as opposed to lesser aspects of mental ability. Tests with high g loadings require complex mental effort, such as comprehension and hypothesis-testing tasks; tests with low g loadings require less-complex abilities and involve recall, recognition, and dexterity. There is general agreement that several distinct aspects of mental ability are correlated with each other, and that the correlation among the distinct factors represents a large general factor. However, this does not necessarily suggest that g is an actual entity. Thus, the disagreement regarding factor theories of intelligence now centers on which factor(s) is (are) most important— the multiple specific factors or the underlying general factor g/dd>
G-FTA: See Goldman-Fristoe Test of Articulation.
GFW: See Goldman-Fristoe-Woodcock Test of Auditory Discrimination.
GFW-Battery: See Goldman-Fristoe-Woodcock Auditory Skills Test Battery.
gibbus: Extreme kyphosis (curvature of the spine); humpback.
Giemsa banding: A staining technique that produces characteristic light and dark bands that are unique for each chromosome pair.
gifted: Refers to superior ability and/or functioning in at least one specific area. PL 97-35, the Educational Consolidation and Improvement Act of 1938, defined the gifted as "children who give evidence of high performance capabilities in areas such as intellectual, creative, artistic, leadership capacity, or specific academic fields, and who require services or activities not normally provided by the school in order to fully develop such capabilities." Elsewhere, the concept of giftedness has been variously defined. Some definitions separate gifted children (those who have superior general intellectual ability) from talented (those who show signs of special aptitude or ability in a specific area of the arts, sciences, or business). Some conceptualizations also include high levels of task commitment, creativity, and a self-concept that recognizes and accepts special talents. Gifted learners occur in nearly every population of students with disabilities. One recently recognized group is gifted students with learning disabilities. Individuals in this specific group often go unrecognized or are mislabeled as "unmotivated." In addition to identification, programming for these students is challenging.
Gifted and Talented Children's Act of 1978: See Elementary and Secondary Education Act Amendments of 1978 (PL 95-561).
Gilles de la Tourette syndrome: A condition that starts in middle childhood with multifocal tics (usually facial) that progress to vocal tics, coughing and throat clearing, animal noises, echolalia (repetition of what is heard), and coprolalia (unprovoked obscene language). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), learning disorders, sleep disturbances, and obsessive-compulsive traits such as self-mutilation are reported. Although a specific neurotransmitter abnormality has not been identified, the often dramatic eradication of symptoms by the drug haloperidol supports an organic disorder. The syndrome's relationship to the full spectrum of developmental disabilities remains unclear. About one third of cases are familial, with an autosomal dominant mode of inheritance. Named after the French neurologist Gilles de la Tourette (1855-1904).
Gillingham approach/reading method: See Orton-Gillingham reading method.
Gillingham-Stillman reading method: See Orton-Gillingham reading method.
gingival fibromatosis-hypertrichosis syndrome: A genetic syndrome with generalized hypertrichosis (excessive amount of dark hair, including eyebrows and eyelashes), and gingival hyperplasia (overgrowth of gums). Inheritance is usually autosomal dominant; seizure disorders and mental retardation are more common in the sporadic (probably autosomal recessive) cases.
gingival hyperplasia: Overgrowth of the gums; the two most common causes of gingival hyperplasia arc acute leukemia and chronic Dilantin (diphenylhydantoin) drug treatment for seizure disorders.
glabellar tap: A finger tap on the junction between the nose and the forehead (glabella) causes eyelid blinking. A nonspecific sign of neurological integrity in a newborn.
Glasgow Coma Scale: A standardized quantitative scale to rate the ability of the person with neurological impairment to open eyes (E, scored 1-4), talk (V, scored 1-5), and move (M, scored 1-6); the total score is used to predict mortality and morbidity following a head injury. Low scores (below 8) indicate coma; high scores (above 8) rule out coma.
glass frustration: An item on infant tests; a toy in which the child shows interest is placed behind a pane of clear glass, and the child's ability to obtain the toy by reaching around the glass is assessed. Success usually occurs at 13 months of age.
glaucoma: A disorder of the eye in which increased pressure within the eye produces pain and varying degrees of loss of vision if left untreated.
glenohumeral joint: Shoulder joint.
glossolalia: Speaking in tongues; gibberish or jargoning in children; in adults, a psychiatric or religious phenomenon.
glossopharyngeal nerve: The ninth cranial nerve; cranial nerve IX is responsible for taste at the back of the tongue, the gag reflex, and palatal elevation on phonation (sound production).
glutamic acid (Glu): A nonessential acid that also acts as a neurotransmitter in the brain; it is a frequent component in a variety of diets that are claimed to improve intelligence; there is no objective support for this claim.
GMFM: See Gross Motor Function Measure.
GMQ: See gross-motor quotient.
Goldenhar syndrome: Goldenhar-Gorlin syndrome; first and second branchial arch syndrome; facioauriculovertebral dysplasia; a syndrome of extremely variable and asymmetric anomalies of structures embryologically derived from the branchial arches. Its dysmorphology (atypical features) spectrum includes hemifacial microsomia (one half of the face is smaller than the other half), microtia (small ear), hypoplasia (atypical tissue development), atresia of the ear canal and preauricular tags (with conductive [involving the middle and outer ear] hearing loss in 30% of cases), macrosomia (an apparent large mouth secondary to lateral clefts), cervical (neck) hemivertebrae, and occasional eve abnormalities. Mental retardation is uncommon (15% of cases). Cosmetic surgery is indicated in all but the mildest cases. Incidence is 1 in 5,000, with a male and a right-sided involvement preference. Recurrence risk is 2%.
Goldman-Fristoe Test of Articulation (G-FTA): An articulation test for children 2-16 years of age that uses sounds in words, sounds in sentences, and stimulability.
Goldman-Fristoe-Woodcock Auditory Skills Test Battery (GFW-Battery): Four 15-minute tests of auditory selective attention, diagnostic auditory discrimination, auditory memory, and sound-symbol association for people ages 3 years to adult.
Goldman-Fristoe-Woodcock Test of Auditory Discrimination (GFW): A test of closed-set word identification in quiet and in noise for people 3 years of age and up.
goniometer: An instrument to measure angles, specifically goniometry (range of motion at a joint).
Goodenough-Harris Drawing Test (Draw-a-Man): A drawing test for use in children 3 years of age and older; the results simultaneously reflect intelligence, graphomotor and perceptual-motor abilities, emotional state, and sex role identification, and must therefore be interpreted with caution. According to different versions of the test, the child may be asked to draw a person or to draw a man, or to draw a woman, and then to draw him- or herself: the resultant human figure drawings are scored by enumerating specific body parts and details; this score is then converted to a mental-age equivalent and a drawing quotient. The drawings can also he interpreted as projective expressions of the child's emotional state. Children with mental retardation who have often practiced figure drawings may produce drawings that score well above their mental age; certain types of learning disabilities may produce peculiar simplifications or distortions in the resultant figure.
Goodman/Smith reading model: An approach to reading that views reading as a process of deriving meaning directly from print without the intermediary of oral language. Readers make use of syntactic (language structure), semantic (meaning systems), phonological (speech sounds), and morphological (word structure) cues, with errors viewed as a necessary constructive part of learning. This model interprets reading as a process that requires simultaneous processing on a variety of levels and does not advocate the splintering of reading into isolated skills such as drills, exercises, and games that divert children's attention from actually reading. Reading instruction should be meaningful, using a variety of materials to ensure that content is interesting and relevant.
Gordon Diagnostic System: A computerized continuous performance task (CPT) device that administers a 9-minute vigilance task.
Gordon sign: The stimulus of squeezing the calf produces the response of toe dorsiflexion (upgoing movement of the toes); this reflex is a variant of the Babinski sign as an index of pyramidal tract involvement.
Gorlin syndrome: A genetic syndrome with basal cell nevi (skin nodules that tend to become cancerous), mental retardation, broad facies, and rib abnormalities on X ray. Inheritance is autosomal dominant.
GORT-D: See Gray Oral Reading Tests-Diagnostic.
GORT-3: See Gray Oral Reading Tests-Third Edition.
Gowers sign: Getting up from the floor by climbing up one's own body; a finding characteristic of the muscle weakness typical of muscular dystrophy.
Grace Arthur Performance Scale: A non verbal IQ test; an adaptation of the Leiter International Performance Scale for deaf children.
grade-equivalent scores: A score derived by determining the average score obtained on a test by children in various grades, expressed in tenths of a grade. For example, if the average raw score for children in fourth grade were 30, that would correspond to a grade equivalent of 4.0. The difference in the raw score between 4.0 and 5.0 is then arbitrarily divided into tenths, with each tenth corresponding to a grade equivalent of 0.1. For instance, if the average raw score for fourth grade were 30 and the average raw score for the fifth grade were 50, then a raw score of 32 would equal a grade equivalent of 4.1; 34 = 4.2; 36 = 4.3; and so forth. Grade equivalents must be interpreted with care. A second-grader who obtains a grade equivalent of 4.1 in arithmetic shares with the average fourth-grader only the numbers right on the test (a score of 32), and should not be assumed to possess other attributes of fourth-grade mathematical ability.
grand mal seizure: See generalized seizure.
grapheme: The written symbol for a phoneme. Graphemes are composed of the letters of the alphabet and their combinations. For example, the graphemes "t" and "sh" each represent a single phoneme. There are 251 graphemes that represent 44 phonemes (thus, some graphemes represent more than one phoneme). For example, the grapheme "g" is used in "gate" to represent the hard "g" and in "gem" to represent the soft "g".
graphomotor: Pertaining to writing or drawing.
grasp reflex: An infantile reflex in which the tactile (touch) stimulus to the palm or sole produces the response of tonic (increased muscle tone) flexion of all the digits. Both the palmar (hand) and plantar (foot) grasp reflexes arc present at birth. The palmar grasp disappears by around 3 months of age, to be replaced by a voluntary grasp. The plantar grasp persists until 9 or 10 months of age and is one of the last primitive reflexes to disappear before the onset of independent walking. Stages in the development of the voluntary grasp include ulnar rake, radial rake, scissors grasp, and immature and mature pincer; many classification systems describe this evolution.
gravida: A pregnant woman. Followed by a Roman numeral, the term refers to the number of pregnancies regardless of duration (gravida III describes a woman who has been pregnant three times). Whereas gravida refers to the number or pregnancies, para refers to the number or deliveries; thus "gravida 4, para 3" suggests that a mother is currently pregnant with her fourth child.
gravitational insecurity: Abnormal anxiety or distress that arises when the gravity receptors of the vestibular (balance) system are stimulated by head position or movement, especially when the child's feet are not on the ground.
gray matter: Areas of the central nervous system (CNS) that contain the neurons (nerve cells). The cerebral cortex has a layer of gray matter. Gray matter diseases, such as Tay-Sachs disease, generally damage or destroy the nerve cell itself.
gray matter disease: A group of degenerative diseases of the central nervous system (CNS) in which cognitive deterioration, convulsions, and visual (eye) impairment associated with retinal changes occur early in the course of the disorder; motor findings, such as spasticity (increased muscle tone), occur late. (Brain gray matter regulates thought; white matter, motor activity). Most storage diseases (e.g., Tay-Sachs, Fahry, Niemann-Pick) are gray matter diseases.
Gray Oral Reading Tests-Diagnostic (GORT-D): A test for children in kindergarten through grade six who have trouble reading print. The first subtest require the student to respond to comprehension questions relating to orally read passages. Poor performance on this subtest leads to the administration of remaining subtests: decoding, word identification, word attack, morphemic analysis, contextual analysis, and word ordering.
Gray Oral Reading Tests-Third Edition (GORT-3): A measure of oral reading performance in children 7-0 to 18-11 years of age. Standard scores are reported for Passage Score and Oral Reading Comprehension (with a mean of 10 and a standard deviation of 31, as well as total Oral Reading Comprehension (with a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 15). The GORT-3 also provides a system for miscue analysis that yields information in four areas: meaning similarity, function similarity, graphic/phonemic similarity, and self-correction. There are two alternate equivalent forms with 13 develop-mentally sequenced passages, each with five comprehension questions.
Greig syndrome: A genetic syndrome with macrocephaly (enlarged head circumference), a high forehead, frontal bossing (swelling), hypertelorism (widely spaced eyes), syndactyly (webbing of the ringers or toes), polydactyly (extra fingers or toes), and occasional mild mental retardation. Inheritance is autosomal dominant. Named after the Scottish surgeon, David Greig (1864-1936).
Grice procedure: The use of the tibial (calf bone) bone graft to perform a subtalar arthrodesis (surgical immobilization below the ankle) to treat valgus (outward) foot deformity. Also known as the Grice-Green procedure.
grief: Deep and lingering sadness in response to an important loss. Grief, even when intense, can be a normal reaction with predictable stages and behaviors; presentation varies with individuals and different cultures. Failure to grieve after an important loss is more unhealthy than is acute, deep grief. Parents of a child with developmental disabilities experience an initial grief process when first realizing their child has such a disability. Moreover, these parents often face the grief process again with each new developmental stage, such as when their child starts school, adolescence, and at the transition to adulthood. This recurrent grief process, although unique to parents of children with developmental disabilities, is in no way abnormal and should be confronted only when the process gets stuck and prevents the parent from acting in the child's best interest.
Griffiths Mental Development Scale: An intelligence test for babies and young children. There are two versions: birth to 2 years and 2-8 years. The tests are based on the Gesell schedules and yield a general quotient and subscores in six domains: locomotor, personal-social, hearing and speech, eye and hand coordination, performance, and (after 3 years of age) practical reasoning.
Gross Motor Function Measure (GMFM): A criterion-referenced motor scale for children with cerebral palsy that assesses motor abilities and progress.
gross-motor quotient (GMQ): Ratio of gross-motor age to age in months of expected motor milestone achievement for chronological age multiplied by 100, where motor age is the normal age of attainment of the most advanced motor milestone. It is important to note that: 1) neither numerator nor denominator is chronological age, and 2) full correction for prematurity is made when estimating the denominator. GMQs below 45 suggest cerebral palsy; GMQs between 45 and 70 suggest apraxia (inability to perform purposeful movements) or clumsiness; GMQs above 70 are compatible with normal motor development.
gross-motor skills: Posture and locomotion skills. Early gross-motor skills, such as rolling over, sitting, crawling, walking, and running, seem to be heavily maturational (determined almost exclusively by the preprogrammed myelinization of the central nervous system). Later gross-motor skills, such as swimming, bicycle riding, and certain other athletic abilities, have an increasingly larger environmental or learned component. Gross-motor abilities have little relationship to general intelligence.
group B streptococcal (GBS) infection: A severe infection with a specific bacterial strain; in newborns with this infection, there is a 50% mortality rate in the first few days of life; when the onset is after 1 week of age, there is a 25% mortality rate. GBS meningitis (inflammation of the spinal cord and brain membranes) has a high incidence of neurological sequelae, such as severe mental retardation, blindness, deafness, seizures, and spastic cerebral palsy.
group home: A residence licensed by the state for persons with mental retardation, other developmental disabilities, and certain mental illnesses. Persons in group homes use the special education, day care, and vocational facilities in the community. Placement in the home may be transitional or permanent. A group home provides its residents with training in independent living skills commensurate with their abilities. The home is supervised by individuals who can live in the home or within close proximity to it. The group home environment serves to foster an approximation of nondisabled living arrangements, encouraging shared responsibility and cooperative social interaction. Group homes must adhere to guidelines established by the Developmental Disabilities Administration of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services to qualify for federal assistance. The structure may be owned, leased, or part of a larger facility for individuals with disabilities.
growing pains: Intermittent mild aches in the leg muscles that occur in approximately 15% of children (girls more frequently than boys); in the presence of headache and stomachache, the possibility of psychosomatic or somaticizing disorder should be considered. A detailed family history can be helpful in the differential diagnosis.
growth: Progressive development toward the mature adult; the process includes increasing size, changing proportions, and physiological maturation. Growth rates for individuals and for specific organ systems show variability, accelerations, and plateaus in a complex interactional pattern. Disturbances in either excess or deficiency of growth can reflect either environmental or genetic and metabolic factors; depending on the specific cause of a problem in growth, development may also he involved.
GSR: See galvanic skin response.
guard: Position of upper extremities during walking; the guard position evolves from a high arm position in early walking through a middle to low arm position seen in mature walking.
guardian ad litem (GAL): A legal representative to protect the child's interests in legal proceedings and a guardian to protect the child's long-range interests. PL 93-247 (the Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act of 1974) mandated GALs for abused and neglected children.
guardianship: The care and legal responsibility that a mature adult assumes for a person with a disability (e.g., mental retardation, mental illness) with respect to the individual's physical (as in consenting to surgery) and contractual or fiscal affairs. In individual cases, the level of supervision and decision-making responsibility is specified and tailored to be compatible with the needs and abilities of the person with a disability. Thus, guardianship can be limited to only certain aspects of an individual's life, or it may cover all aspects.
gustatory: Relating to the sense of taste.
Guthrie test: A microbiological inhibition assay (specialized laboratory test) for phenylalanine (an essential ammo acid). The amount of phenylalanine present in blood proportionately inhibits the growth of a specific microorganism (virus, bacterium, fungus). This test is the basis for newborn screening for phenylketonuria (PKU), one of a number of causes of hyperphenylalaninemia (increased phenylalanine in the blood).
gyrus: A convolution on the surface of the brain. These are numbered, and many are named for their specific functional associations.